Chapter X. The Buddhist Calendar
*
"Chinese Buddhism", by Joseph Edkins, [1893],
p. 205
Chapter X.
The Buddhist Calendar.
National festivals--Festivals in honour of celestial beings--In honour of the Buddhas and Bodhisattwas--In honour of characters in Chinese Buddhist history--Supplemental anniversaries--Singhalese Buddhists keep a different day for Buddha's birthday--In the T'ang dynasty Hindoo astronomers reformed the calendar--Gaudamsiddha--The week of India and Babylon known to the Chinese--Word "mit" for Sunday--Peacock Sutra--The Hindoo "Rahu" and "Ketu".
One of the most instructive illustrations of a religion is its calendar. Not only do the fasts and festivals kept by a people point out in succession who are the personages held by them in the highest honour; they also contain an epitome of the history and doctrines of the religion they believe, and especially aid in opening to observation the popular religious life.
The work called "Ts'ing-kwei", "Regulations of the Priesthood," contains instructions for the observance of all fasts and festivals through the year. From it are extracted the following details of anniversaries:--
1. National.
\"Emperor's birthday".--The ceremonial for this anniversary lasts a week, embracing three days before and three after the day in question. It is called "Sheng-tsie", "Sacred festival."
"Empress's birthday".
"Day of receiving an imperial message at the monastery".--Six persons are sent out "five "li" (nearly two miles) to
p. 206
meet it. On its approach, the monks, headed by their chief, issue from the monastery, and bow their foreheads to the ground three times.
"Four monthly feasts".--These are at the new and full moons, and on the 8th and 23d of the month. They are called "Kin-ming s-chai", "The four feasts illustriously decreed." The last two words refer to a decree of an emperor of the Sui dynasty in A.d. 584, requiring the special observance of the monthly feasts in the 1st, 5th, and 9th months; because then the great Southern continent was prayed for, in which China is included.
"Anniversaries of emperors' deaths".--Those of the present dynasty only are included.
2. Celestial Beings
\"Day of worshipping the Devas" ("Kung-T'ien").--All the chief personages, whether Devas, spirits, demons, Asuras, Rakshas, &c., of the Hindoo older mythology, are worshipped on this occasion. This observance rests for its authority on the "Kin-kwang-ming-king", "The Bright Sutra of Golden Light."
"Eclipses of the Sun and Moon".--In the services for these days, the sun and moon are addressed as "Bodhisattwas" ("P'u-sa"), and the power of Buddha is invoked to deliver them. Hence the name of the service, "Hu-j", "Hu-yue", "Delivering the sun and moon." The prayers offered for them are considered as gratitude for their light.
"Sacrifice to the Moon", 8"th month", 15"th day".--The ground for this observance is that this day is, according to national tradition, the moon's birthday. As in the service for eclipses, "Namo", "Honour to," the introductory formula of worship, is used in addressing the moon. She is called in full "Yue-kung-t'ai-yin-tsun-t'ien-p'u-sa", "The moon in her mansion, luminary of night, honoured Deva and Bodhisattwa."
"Prayer for fine weather".--Prayer to various Buddhas, and other divinities.
p. 207
\"Prayer for rain".--Worship is performed towards the East, and prayers offered to the Dragon king, the various Buddhas, according to some the" 13"th day".--Wei-to is a deity of Hindoo mythology, who protects three of the four continents into which the world is divided. (See Remusat's Notes to "Fo" kou ki".)
"Birthdays of the divine protectors of the monasteries".--They are three:--(1.) Hwa-kwang, 9th month, 28th day; (2.) "Lung-wang", or "Naga-raja", the "Dragon King;" (3.) "Kwan-ti", the "God of war," 5th month, 13th day, according to the common account; but according to his biography in the national annals, 6th month, 24th day. These three personages take the place of eighteen worshipped in India. One of them is the well-known hero of the "Three Kingdoms." They receive the same honours that are awarded to Wei-to.
"Birthday of the Kitchen god", 6"th month", 24"th day", 8"th month", 3"d day", "and" 12"th month", 24"th day".--The Buddhists say, to excuse themselves for adopting a Tauist superstition, that the Kitchen god they worship is not the Tsau-kin venerated commonly by the people, but a king of the "Kinnaras" (a fabulous race of celestial beings), who became a Chinese priest in the T'ang dynasty, and was appointed at death to preside over the vegetarian diet of the monks. This is a lame defence of what is evidently a self-interested accommodation to popular notions.
3. The Buddhas And Bodhisattwas.
\"Birthday of Shakyamuni", 4"th month", 8"th day".--He is also called Buddha, "Tathgata" or "Julai", and Gautama,
p. 208
and is revered as "Pun-sh", the "Teacher of the world during the present "kalpa"."
"Anniversary of Shakyamuni's elevation to the rank of Buddha", 12"th month", 8"th day".--The phrase in use is "Ch'eng-tau", "Attained the summit of knowledge and virtue."
"Anniversary of Buddha's entrance into the Nirvna", 2"d month", 15"th day".
"Birthday of Yo-sh Fo" (The Buddha who instructs in healing, Bhaishajyaguru Buddha), 9"th month", 30"th day".--The world governed by this Buddha is in the East.
"Birthday of O-mi-to Fo or Amida" (Amitabha) "Buddha", 11"th month", 17"th day".--The Buddha who rules in the universe to the west of that governed by Shakya, and grants the request of all those who pray to him to admit them to the Western heaven.
"Birthday of Mi-li Fo" (Maitreya Buddha), 1"st month", 1"st day".--The Buddha who is to succeed Shakyamuni in the government of the world. Maitreya was visited in one of the paradises by Shakyamuni, and foretold his destiny.
"Birthday of the female Buddha, Chun-ti", 3"d month", 6"th day".--Great powers of sorcery are attributed to this personage.
"Birthday of Wen-shu p'u-sa" (Manjusiri Bodhisattwa), 4"th month", 4"th day".--One of the Bodhisattwas of Northern Buddhism.
"Birthday of P'u-hien p'u-sa" (Samantabhadra), 2"d month", 21"st day".--A fictitious Bodhisattwa of Northern Buddhism.
"Birthday of Kwan-sh-yin p'u-sa" (Avalkitshwara), 2"d month", 19"th day".--This fabulous Bodhisattwa has in China been usually represented with female attributes. In the "Fa-hwa-king", "Kwan-yin" is described as being able to assume any form at pleasure, whether that of Buddhas, Devas, men, or others, and as being guided in such voluntary metamorphoses by a constant desire to proclaim the Buddhist doctrine to those who need it, in the form most likely to effect the object. Kwan-yin is thus able to save
p. 209
any of the inhabitants of the "Saha" (or Saba) world, "i.e.", the present race of mankind. When "Kwan-yin" is translated, not inappropriately, "Goddess of mercy," it should be remembered that female attributes are only temporarily assumed by the Bodhisattwa in question. (See the "Kwan-yin" section, near the end of the "Fa-hwa-king".)
"Birthday of Ta-sh-ch p'u-sa", 7"th month", 13"th day".--The position of this Bodhisattwa is to the right of Amitabha Buddha, while Kwan-yin takes the left. They are styled together, "the Three Sages of the West" ("Si-fang-san-sheng").
"Birthday of Ti-tsang p'u-sa", 7"th month", 30"th day".
4. Characters In Chinese Buddhist History.
\"Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma" ("Ta-mo"), 10"th month", 5"th day".--The first of the six patriarchs.
"Death of Pe-Chang", 1"st month", 19"th day".--He was a teacher of Bodhidharma's system in the T'ang dynasty. He wrote the work "Ts'ing-kwei" from which these notices of fasts and festivals are taken.
"Death of Ch-k'ai", 11"th month", 24"th day".--The founder of the T'ien-t'ai school.
"Death of Hien-sheu", 11"th month", 14"th day".--A founder of a school bearing his name, and advocating the "Great Development" system ("Ta-ch'eng").
"Death of Tau-siuen", 10"th month", 3"d day".--A founder of the Discipline school.
"Death of Hwei-yuen", 8"th month", 6"th day".--A founder of the Tsing-tu school.
"Death of the founder of the monastery",--also of a priest's own religious instructor, of the priests who admitted him to the vows, and of his parents.
5. Supplementary Anniversaries.
\"Commencement of summer" ("Li-hia"), 4"th month", 16"th day".--This anniversary is traced to the usage of the earliest Hindoo Buddhists, who, when summer arrived, came together
p. 210
and remained associated under strict monastic rule during the hot months. This period over, they began their begging excursions afresh.
"Y-lan-p'en" ("U-lam") "ceremony, for feeding hungry ghosts", 7"th month", 15"th day".--The authority for this festival is the "Y-lan-p'en Sutra", translated into Chinese about A.d. 270. It terminates the summer, as the preceding began it.
"End of summer", 7"th month", 16"th day".
"Commencement and end of winter" ("Li-tung", "Kiai-tung"), 10"th month", 15"th day", and 1"st month", 15"th day".
"First day of the year".--Special worship.
"Birthday of Shakra", 1"st month", 9"th day".--Shakra, or Indra, god of the atmosphere, is, in the modern editions of "Pe-chang-ts'ing-kwei", "Manual of Buddhist Regulations and Festivals," identified with the well-known Tauist divinity "Y-ti". Oriental religions are so mutually complimentary, that they sometimes adopt each other's divinities without scruple. The Sanscrit 'Indra Shakra' is rendered in Chinese "Ti-sh" (formerly "shak").
"Birthday of Yo-wang p'u-sa" ("Bhishajyarja"), "Medical king and Bodhisattwa," 4"th month", 15"th day".
"Birthday of the Bodhisattwa Lung-shu" ("Nagarjuna"), or "Dragon-tree," 7"th month", 25"th day".--He was the fourteenth patriarch, and author of the "Hundred Discourses," one of the most noted of the Buddhist Shastras.
"Birthday of the ancient Buddha Jan-teng", "Light lamp" ("Dipankara Buddha"), 8"th month", 22"d day".--Shakyamuni in a former kalpa was a disciple of this Buddha.
"Winter solstice".--Special worship.
"Birthday of the Bodhisattwa Hwa-yen", 12"th month", 29"th day".
The method of observing these anniversaries, and the prayers to be used, are very minutely detailed in the book from which these notices are translated.
The dates are those of the lunar months of the Chinese national almanac.
p. 211
It may be doubted whether more than a very few of them are identical with the festivals of the Southern Buddhists, viz., those of Ceylon, Siam, and Birmah, there being several of the great Bodhisattwas who are not mentioned in works by foreign authors treating of the Buddhism of those countries.
In Ceylon the prevalent legend of Gautama's life states that he was born on the day of the full moon in the second month of spring. This differs irreconcilably.
In this popular calendar, there is no mention of anything astronomical; yet in the T'ang dynasty Buddhist calculators from India were invited to undertake the improvement of the imperial calendar.
Gaudamsiddha, in the eighth century, published a work called "Kieu-ch-li". It is a translation from a Hindoo original. In it the days of the week are apportioned among the planets in the following order: "Yung-hwo", "Mars; Ch'en-sing", "Mercury; Sui-sing", "Jupiter; T'ai-pe", "Venus; Chen-sing", "Saturn." 1
These planets, with the sun and moon, form the "ts'i-yau", "seven bright celestial objects." They constitute the mythological week of seven days, which sprang up in Babylonia, and spread to India, and also to Europe in the days of the Roman empire.
Some Chinese almanacs call Sunday the day of "Mit", the Persian "Mithras," a name for the sun. "Mit" is spoken of as a "Hwei-hwei" word. This term "Hwei-hwei" is one of the names for the Persian language among the Chinese. It is the word "ouighour".
In the "Kung-ch'io-king", "Peacock Sutra," the days of the week are also given. This work is a translation by a Chinese priest named Yi-tsing. When Mr. Wylie was visiting Peking on one occasion, he went with me to a monastery to consult the "Peacock Sutra" in the library.
p. 212
[paragraph continues] We were courteously received, and allowed to take it home with us for a few days.
Many superstitious beliefs and observances native to India were imported to China by the Hindoo Buddhists. They taught much that was not at all purely Buddhist. The education they received embraced a wide range. Metaphysics, astronomy, medicine, and other subjects were taught in India in the old times of Buddhist prosperity, probably much as they are now in the lamaseries of Mongolia.
Thus the ascending and descending nodes of the moon's orbit were known as two monsters, called "Rahu" and "Ketu," in modern Chinese, "Lo-heu" and "Ki-tu". At eclipses, the Chinese story of a wild dog eating the sun and moon is derived from this piece of Hindoo mythology. In native almanacs these names are preserved in the nomenclature of astrology, and the conception is encouraged that the earth's shadow crossing the moon is a dark heavenly body, and a sort of planet of a dark nature, becoming risible only at eclipses.
The Indian year of three seasons is described, but no attempt has been made to interfere with the Chinese seasons of three months each. The Buddhists have arranged their calendar of festivals and fasts to suit the Chinese months.
Footnotes
211:1 See "Chinese Recorder", 1872. Mr. Wylie, "On the Knowledge of a weekly Sabbath in China," pp. 40-45. But add to Mr. Wylie's very full and interesting statements, that "Mit" is "Mithras" here, and in page 8.
"Chinese Buddhism", by Joseph Edkins, [1893],
p. 205
Chapter X.
The Buddhist Calendar.
National festivals--Festivals in honour of celestial beings--In honour of the Buddhas and Bodhisattwas--In honour of characters in Chinese Buddhist history--Supplemental anniversaries--Singhalese Buddhists keep a different day for Buddha's birthday--In the T'ang dynasty Hindoo astronomers reformed the calendar--Gaudamsiddha--The week of India and Babylon known to the Chinese--Word "mit" for Sunday--Peacock Sutra--The Hindoo "Rahu" and "Ketu".
One of the most instructive illustrations of a religion is its calendar. Not only do the fasts and festivals kept by a people point out in succession who are the personages held by them in the highest honour; they also contain an epitome of the history and doctrines of the religion they believe, and especially aid in opening to observation the popular religious life.
The work called "Ts'ing-kwei", "Regulations of the Priesthood," contains instructions for the observance of all fasts and festivals through the year. From it are extracted the following details of anniversaries:--
1. National.
\"Emperor's birthday".--The ceremonial for this anniversary lasts a week, embracing three days before and three after the day in question. It is called "Sheng-tsie", "Sacred festival."
"Empress's birthday".
"Day of receiving an imperial message at the monastery".--Six persons are sent out "five "li" (nearly two miles) to
p. 206
meet it. On its approach, the monks, headed by their chief, issue from the monastery, and bow their foreheads to the ground three times.
"Four monthly feasts".--These are at the new and full moons, and on the 8th and 23d of the month. They are called "Kin-ming s-chai", "The four feasts illustriously decreed." The last two words refer to a decree of an emperor of the Sui dynasty in A.d. 584, requiring the special observance of the monthly feasts in the 1st, 5th, and 9th months; because then the great Southern continent was prayed for, in which China is included.
"Anniversaries of emperors' deaths".--Those of the present dynasty only are included.
2. Celestial Beings
\"Day of worshipping the Devas" ("Kung-T'ien").--All the chief personages, whether Devas, spirits, demons, Asuras, Rakshas, &c., of the Hindoo older mythology, are worshipped on this occasion. This observance rests for its authority on the "Kin-kwang-ming-king", "The Bright Sutra of Golden Light."
"Eclipses of the Sun and Moon".--In the services for these days, the sun and moon are addressed as "Bodhisattwas" ("P'u-sa"), and the power of Buddha is invoked to deliver them. Hence the name of the service, "Hu-j", "Hu-yue", "Delivering the sun and moon." The prayers offered for them are considered as gratitude for their light.
"Sacrifice to the Moon", 8"th month", 15"th day".--The ground for this observance is that this day is, according to national tradition, the moon's birthday. As in the service for eclipses, "Namo", "Honour to," the introductory formula of worship, is used in addressing the moon. She is called in full "Yue-kung-t'ai-yin-tsun-t'ien-p'u-sa", "The moon in her mansion, luminary of night, honoured Deva and Bodhisattwa."
"Prayer for fine weather".--Prayer to various Buddhas, and other divinities.
p. 207
\"Prayer for rain".--Worship is performed towards the East, and prayers offered to the Dragon king, the various Buddhas, according to some the" 13"th day".--Wei-to is a deity of Hindoo mythology, who protects three of the four continents into which the world is divided. (See Remusat's Notes to "Fo" kou ki".)
"Birthdays of the divine protectors of the monasteries".--They are three:--(1.) Hwa-kwang, 9th month, 28th day; (2.) "Lung-wang", or "Naga-raja", the "Dragon King;" (3.) "Kwan-ti", the "God of war," 5th month, 13th day, according to the common account; but according to his biography in the national annals, 6th month, 24th day. These three personages take the place of eighteen worshipped in India. One of them is the well-known hero of the "Three Kingdoms." They receive the same honours that are awarded to Wei-to.
"Birthday of the Kitchen god", 6"th month", 24"th day", 8"th month", 3"d day", "and" 12"th month", 24"th day".--The Buddhists say, to excuse themselves for adopting a Tauist superstition, that the Kitchen god they worship is not the Tsau-kin venerated commonly by the people, but a king of the "Kinnaras" (a fabulous race of celestial beings), who became a Chinese priest in the T'ang dynasty, and was appointed at death to preside over the vegetarian diet of the monks. This is a lame defence of what is evidently a self-interested accommodation to popular notions.
3. The Buddhas And Bodhisattwas.
\"Birthday of Shakyamuni", 4"th month", 8"th day".--He is also called Buddha, "Tathgata" or "Julai", and Gautama,
p. 208
and is revered as "Pun-sh", the "Teacher of the world during the present "kalpa"."
"Anniversary of Shakyamuni's elevation to the rank of Buddha", 12"th month", 8"th day".--The phrase in use is "Ch'eng-tau", "Attained the summit of knowledge and virtue."
"Anniversary of Buddha's entrance into the Nirvna", 2"d month", 15"th day".
"Birthday of Yo-sh Fo" (The Buddha who instructs in healing, Bhaishajyaguru Buddha), 9"th month", 30"th day".--The world governed by this Buddha is in the East.
"Birthday of O-mi-to Fo or Amida" (Amitabha) "Buddha", 11"th month", 17"th day".--The Buddha who rules in the universe to the west of that governed by Shakya, and grants the request of all those who pray to him to admit them to the Western heaven.
"Birthday of Mi-li Fo" (Maitreya Buddha), 1"st month", 1"st day".--The Buddha who is to succeed Shakyamuni in the government of the world. Maitreya was visited in one of the paradises by Shakyamuni, and foretold his destiny.
"Birthday of the female Buddha, Chun-ti", 3"d month", 6"th day".--Great powers of sorcery are attributed to this personage.
"Birthday of Wen-shu p'u-sa" (Manjusiri Bodhisattwa), 4"th month", 4"th day".--One of the Bodhisattwas of Northern Buddhism.
"Birthday of P'u-hien p'u-sa" (Samantabhadra), 2"d month", 21"st day".--A fictitious Bodhisattwa of Northern Buddhism.
"Birthday of Kwan-sh-yin p'u-sa" (Avalkitshwara), 2"d month", 19"th day".--This fabulous Bodhisattwa has in China been usually represented with female attributes. In the "Fa-hwa-king", "Kwan-yin" is described as being able to assume any form at pleasure, whether that of Buddhas, Devas, men, or others, and as being guided in such voluntary metamorphoses by a constant desire to proclaim the Buddhist doctrine to those who need it, in the form most likely to effect the object. Kwan-yin is thus able to save
p. 209
any of the inhabitants of the "Saha" (or Saba) world, "i.e.", the present race of mankind. When "Kwan-yin" is translated, not inappropriately, "Goddess of mercy," it should be remembered that female attributes are only temporarily assumed by the Bodhisattwa in question. (See the "Kwan-yin" section, near the end of the "Fa-hwa-king".)
"Birthday of Ta-sh-ch p'u-sa", 7"th month", 13"th day".--The position of this Bodhisattwa is to the right of Amitabha Buddha, while Kwan-yin takes the left. They are styled together, "the Three Sages of the West" ("Si-fang-san-sheng").
"Birthday of Ti-tsang p'u-sa", 7"th month", 30"th day".
4. Characters In Chinese Buddhist History.
\"Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma" ("Ta-mo"), 10"th month", 5"th day".--The first of the six patriarchs.
"Death of Pe-Chang", 1"st month", 19"th day".--He was a teacher of Bodhidharma's system in the T'ang dynasty. He wrote the work "Ts'ing-kwei" from which these notices of fasts and festivals are taken.
"Death of Ch-k'ai", 11"th month", 24"th day".--The founder of the T'ien-t'ai school.
"Death of Hien-sheu", 11"th month", 14"th day".--A founder of a school bearing his name, and advocating the "Great Development" system ("Ta-ch'eng").
"Death of Tau-siuen", 10"th month", 3"d day".--A founder of the Discipline school.
"Death of Hwei-yuen", 8"th month", 6"th day".--A founder of the Tsing-tu school.
"Death of the founder of the monastery",--also of a priest's own religious instructor, of the priests who admitted him to the vows, and of his parents.
5. Supplementary Anniversaries.
\"Commencement of summer" ("Li-hia"), 4"th month", 16"th day".--This anniversary is traced to the usage of the earliest Hindoo Buddhists, who, when summer arrived, came together
p. 210
and remained associated under strict monastic rule during the hot months. This period over, they began their begging excursions afresh.
"Y-lan-p'en" ("U-lam") "ceremony, for feeding hungry ghosts", 7"th month", 15"th day".--The authority for this festival is the "Y-lan-p'en Sutra", translated into Chinese about A.d. 270. It terminates the summer, as the preceding began it.
"End of summer", 7"th month", 16"th day".
"Commencement and end of winter" ("Li-tung", "Kiai-tung"), 10"th month", 15"th day", and 1"st month", 15"th day".
"First day of the year".--Special worship.
"Birthday of Shakra", 1"st month", 9"th day".--Shakra, or Indra, god of the atmosphere, is, in the modern editions of "Pe-chang-ts'ing-kwei", "Manual of Buddhist Regulations and Festivals," identified with the well-known Tauist divinity "Y-ti". Oriental religions are so mutually complimentary, that they sometimes adopt each other's divinities without scruple. The Sanscrit 'Indra Shakra' is rendered in Chinese "Ti-sh" (formerly "shak").
"Birthday of Yo-wang p'u-sa" ("Bhishajyarja"), "Medical king and Bodhisattwa," 4"th month", 15"th day".
"Birthday of the Bodhisattwa Lung-shu" ("Nagarjuna"), or "Dragon-tree," 7"th month", 25"th day".--He was the fourteenth patriarch, and author of the "Hundred Discourses," one of the most noted of the Buddhist Shastras.
"Birthday of the ancient Buddha Jan-teng", "Light lamp" ("Dipankara Buddha"), 8"th month", 22"d day".--Shakyamuni in a former kalpa was a disciple of this Buddha.
"Winter solstice".--Special worship.
"Birthday of the Bodhisattwa Hwa-yen", 12"th month", 29"th day".
The method of observing these anniversaries, and the prayers to be used, are very minutely detailed in the book from which these notices are translated.
The dates are those of the lunar months of the Chinese national almanac.
p. 211
It may be doubted whether more than a very few of them are identical with the festivals of the Southern Buddhists, viz., those of Ceylon, Siam, and Birmah, there being several of the great Bodhisattwas who are not mentioned in works by foreign authors treating of the Buddhism of those countries.
In Ceylon the prevalent legend of Gautama's life states that he was born on the day of the full moon in the second month of spring. This differs irreconcilably.
In this popular calendar, there is no mention of anything astronomical; yet in the T'ang dynasty Buddhist calculators from India were invited to undertake the improvement of the imperial calendar.
Gaudamsiddha, in the eighth century, published a work called "Kieu-ch-li". It is a translation from a Hindoo original. In it the days of the week are apportioned among the planets in the following order: "Yung-hwo", "Mars; Ch'en-sing", "Mercury; Sui-sing", "Jupiter; T'ai-pe", "Venus; Chen-sing", "Saturn." 1
These planets, with the sun and moon, form the "ts'i-yau", "seven bright celestial objects." They constitute the mythological week of seven days, which sprang up in Babylonia, and spread to India, and also to Europe in the days of the Roman empire.
Some Chinese almanacs call Sunday the day of "Mit", the Persian "Mithras," a name for the sun. "Mit" is spoken of as a "Hwei-hwei" word. This term "Hwei-hwei" is one of the names for the Persian language among the Chinese. It is the word "ouighour".
In the "Kung-ch'io-king", "Peacock Sutra," the days of the week are also given. This work is a translation by a Chinese priest named Yi-tsing. When Mr. Wylie was visiting Peking on one occasion, he went with me to a monastery to consult the "Peacock Sutra" in the library.
p. 212
[paragraph continues] We were courteously received, and allowed to take it home with us for a few days.
Many superstitious beliefs and observances native to India were imported to China by the Hindoo Buddhists. They taught much that was not at all purely Buddhist. The education they received embraced a wide range. Metaphysics, astronomy, medicine, and other subjects were taught in India in the old times of Buddhist prosperity, probably much as they are now in the lamaseries of Mongolia.
Thus the ascending and descending nodes of the moon's orbit were known as two monsters, called "Rahu" and "Ketu," in modern Chinese, "Lo-heu" and "Ki-tu". At eclipses, the Chinese story of a wild dog eating the sun and moon is derived from this piece of Hindoo mythology. In native almanacs these names are preserved in the nomenclature of astrology, and the conception is encouraged that the earth's shadow crossing the moon is a dark heavenly body, and a sort of planet of a dark nature, becoming risible only at eclipses.
The Indian year of three seasons is described, but no attempt has been made to interfere with the Chinese seasons of three months each. The Buddhists have arranged their calendar of festivals and fasts to suit the Chinese months.
Footnotes
211:1 See "Chinese Recorder", 1872. Mr. Wylie, "On the Knowledge of a weekly Sabbath in China," pp. 40-45. But add to Mr. Wylie's very full and interesting statements, that "Mit" is "Mithras" here, and in page 8.
